The laterite gravel found all over Kenya does not meet the engineering requirements to be used
as flexible paving materials in road construction due to its high plasticity and gradation as well
as other requirements like Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA), Soundness and ACV (Aggregate
Crushing Value).
As a result of this difficulty, high-quality aggregates with suitable engineering attributes must
be transported from their regions of origin to the building site. These vast amounts of material

Water pollution is a rampant problem in most of the developing countries and Kenya is
not an exception. With Kenya also being described as a water scarce country with a projection of
below 400 m3/year per capita which is well below the globally accepted value of 1000m3/year per
capita, there is need for immediate attention to water conservation both in terms of quantity and
quality.
Kiambu county is mostly agricultural with many farms across the county. There are many

Kenya’s construction industry has been rapidly growing from 2016 to 2019 (Masyuko & Kaaria,
2020); however, collapses of buildings and other infrastructure happen relatively often due to the
use of substandard materials and errors in structural design. The Kenyan construction industry is
suffused with counterfeit construction materials (CCE News Team, 2022). Consequentially, these
materials are weak and incapable of supporting civil buildings and structures. Sometimes a